| Italy (Lomellina area, Pavia) |
Rice farm and irrigation district |
Humid subtropical; annual precipitation: 800-900 mm; alluvial silty-loam to sandy loam soils; shallow groundwater table |
Continuous flooding |
Water scarcity in drought years and competition of irrigation with other water uses; groundwater decline; surface water and groundwater pollution (N, pesticides); yield quantity and quality; soil fertility; farm economy; irrigation management performed manually both at the farm and at the irrigation channel network levels; traditional landscape and wildlife habitat conservation |
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| Spain (Baix Ter area; Pals, Girona) |
Rice farm and irrigation district |
Mediterranean maritime; annual precipitation: 600 mm; alluvial soils (Xerofluvents); shallow groundwater table |
Continuous flooding |
Limited water availability; competition of rice production with other water uses; natural park protection; aquifer vulnerability to nitrates; salinity problems; risk of marine intrusion; farm economy; yield safety; legal restrictions on fertilizers and pesticides |
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| Spain (Guadalquivir marches; Seville) |
Rice farm and irrigation district |
Mediterranean; annual precipitation: 500-600 mm; silty clay soils; shallow, saline groundwater table |
Continuous flooding |
Water scarcity; dry spells; salinity; inefficiency not compensated by downstream reuse; diffuse pollution of Doñana Nature reserve and Guadalquivir estuary; emission of greenhouse gases; environmental/economic/ social sustainability or rice production |
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| Portugal, (Lower Mondego Valley, Coimbra) |
Rice farm and irrigation district |
Mediterranean temperate; annual precipitation: 800-900 mm; alluvial silty-clay soils; shallow, saline groundwater |
Continuous flooding |
Water scarcity; particularly in dry years; environmental risks related with soil salinization; economic sustainability of rice cropping |
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| Portugal (Lis Valley, Leiria) |
Rice farm |
Mediterranean temperate; annual precipitation: 800-900 mm; alluvial silty-loam soils; shallow, saline groundwater |
Continuous flooding |
Water scarcity (endemic problem in summer months); water distribution system conditions; pumping energy (for irrigation and drainage); surface water pollution (organic load); soil salinization; economic sustainability of rice cropping |
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| Egypt (Nile Delta: Nekla, Sakha, Zankalon) |
Rice farm and irrigation district |
Mediterranean arid/ climate; annual precipitation <=100 mm; heavy clay soil; shallow, saline groundwater |
Continuous flooding |
Water scarcity; water supply problems; groundwater pollution; water logging and salinization problems; poverty and economic sustainability of rice cropping |
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| Turkey (Bafra Valley) |
Rice farm |
Humid subtropical; annual precipitation 700-800 mm; alluvial silty loam soils; shallow groundwater |
Continuous flooding |
Water scarcity; salinization; weed management; greenhouse gases emission; pumping energy cost |
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